Lock name	Hampstead Road Lock No 1(Camden Lock)
Waterway	Regent's Canal
County	CamdenGreater London
Maint	British Waterways
Operation	Manual
Fall
Enda	Limehouse Basin
Distenda
Endb	Paddington Basin
Distendb
lat	51.5411
long	-0.1457
extra	}}

Camden Lock, or Hampstead Road Locks is a twin manually-operated lock on the Regent's Canal in Camden Town, London Borough of Camden. The sign on each of the twin locks reads "Hampstead Road Lock 1". Hawley lock and Kentish Town lock are a short distance away to the east; there are no nearby locks to the west.

History

The locks were constructed between 1818–20 by James Morgan, with John Nash, supervising engineer. It is the only twin-lock remaining on the Canal, the remainder having been modified to single lock operation. The current locks are Grade II listed and replaced an innovative, but unsuccessful, hydropneumatic lock designed by William Congreve in an attempt to conserve water.

The lock is to the west of the Camden High Street road bridge. The yard and former warehouses, an area known as ''Camden Lock'', are on the north side of the canal, at the junction with Chalk Farm Road. This area is adjacent to a canal basin and holds ''Camden Lock Market'', one of the group of markets often called collectively Camden Market. It is a busy market popular with visitors, with music venues, cafes and canal towpath walks. There is a large cut-steel sculpture by English artist Edward Dutkiewicz in the square beside the lock.

Cultural references

Camden Lock is one of many landmarks in this area of London to have a corresponding structure underground in the novel ''The Horn of Mortal Danger'' (1980).

The main spaceship in the British television science fiction sitcom ''Hyperdrive'' is called ''HMS Camden Lock''.

The Italian band Modena City Ramblers wrote a song ''Notturno, Camden Lock'', with a lyric relating to Camden town where one of the band members lived.

The Russian band Aquarium mentions Camden Lock in its song ''Garson #2''

Kate Winslet appeared in a television commercial for American Express, strolling around Camden Lock.

In series 3 of British television comedy "The League of Gentlemen", Legz Akimbo Theatre Company member Phil and his friend Tish stroll around Camden lock. Tish comments "Camden's such a rip off, I love it".

The Japanese rock duo B'z re-recorded the song "Guitar Kids Rhapsody" from their second album ''Off the Lock''. The song is referred to as "Camden Lock Style" because the music video for the re-recorded version was shot in and around Camden Lock.

Transport

A regular waterbus service operates from Camden, heading westwards around Regent's Park, calling at London Zoo and on towards Little Venice.

The tow path is open to pedestrians and cyclists.

The nearest London Underground station is Camden Town on the Northern Line. The nearest London Overground station is Camden Road station.

References

See also

Canals of the United Kingdom

History of the British canal system

Category:Locks on the Regent's Canal Category:Geography of Camden Category:Buildings and structures in Camden Category:Grade II listed buildings in London

ca:Mercat de Camden Lock

External links

Camden Lock

name	Hugh Cornwell
background	solo_singer
birth name	Hugh Alan Cornwell
born	August 28, 1949Tufnell Park, North London, England
instrument	Vocals, guitar
genre	Alternative rockNew wavePunkPost-Punk
occupation	Musician, songwriter, singer, guitarist
years active	1974–present
associated acts	The Stranglers
website	http://www.hughcornwell.com/
notable instruments	Fender Telecaster }}

Hugh Alan Cornwell (born 28 August 1949, Tufnell Park, North London, England) is an English musician and songwriter, best known for being the vocalist and guitarist for the punk/new wave group, The Stranglers, from 1974 to 1990.

Career

Cornwell grew up in Tufnell Park and Kentish Town and attended William Ellis School in Highgate, where he played bass in a band with Richard Thompson, later a member of Fairport Convention. In the late 1960s, after earning a bachelor's degree in biochemistry from Bristol University, he embarked on post-graduate research post in Lund University (Sweden). Not long after his arrival he formed the band Johnny Sox.

Cornwell returned to the UK in 1974 with Johnny Sox (minus Hans Wärmling). Jet Black then joined the band. At one stage it was just Cornwell and Black, who were then joined by Jean Jacques Burnel. Hans Wärmling, on holiday from Sweden, joined the line-up towards the end of 1974. The Johnny Sox name was then dropped and the band toured under the name The Guildford Stranglers and eventually The Stranglers.

Wärmling was soon replaced by Dave Greenfield, who joined in 1975 after answering an advertisement placed in the ''Melody Maker''. Cornwell was the lead guitarist in the group, and he also sang the majority of songs.

By 1977 the group had secured a contract with the United Artists Records; they went on to become the highest selling band to emerge from the UK punk scene, with numerous hit singles and record album.

By the time Cornwell reached his thirties, the British punk scene had started to fade, and this was instrumental in prompting him to begin a solo career. He recorded his first album away from the group, ''Nosferatu'', in collaboration with the Captain Beefheart's Magic Band's drummer, Robert Williams, in 1979.

In 1990 he decided that the band could go no further artistically. He recorded the album ''10'' with the band before leaving after sixteen years.

Since leaving The Stranglers, Cornwell has released several solo albums including ''Wolf'' (1988) produced by Ian Ritchie, ''Wired'' (1993), ''Guilty'' (1997), ''Hi Fi'' (2000), ''Footprints in the Desert'' (2002), ''Mayday'' (2002), ''In the Dock'' (2003), and ''Beyond Elysian Fields'' (2004). ''Wired'', ''Guilty'' and ''Hi Fi'' were released under different names, and with slightly different track listings, in the United States. ''Beyond Elysian Fields'' was initially released by Track Records in the UK, followed by Invisible Hands Music in the rest of the world, with expanded artwork. In 2006 a live album in two forms appeared: ''People Places Pieces'', a triple CD box set, accompanied by a simultaneously released mass-market highlights disc, ''Dirty Dozen''. The 12-track highlights disc, ''Live It and Breathe It'', was released in 2005 in advance of the box set.

In December 2006, Cornwell toured with Blondie in the UK, and in September 2007 with Robert Williams. Three new songs were previewed, "Bangin' On", "Please Don't Put Me On A Slow Boat To Trowbridge" and "Delightful Nightmare". After this tour, the drum stool was taken over by Chris Bell, completing the current trio along with bassist Caroline Campbell.

In June 2008, Cornwell followed in the footsteps of Radiohead and Nine Inch Nails by offering his new album ''Hooverdam'' as a free download on his website. ''Hooverdam'' was recorded at Toe Rag Studios with record producer, Liam Watson. The album was accompanied by a film, ''Blueprint'', which depicted the recording process of the album. Cornwell explained that the film was partly motivated by the risible quality of DVDs accompanying contemporary CD releases. ''Blueprint'' was described as "an engrossing film that borrows from Godard's "Sympathy For The Devil" and Jewison's The Thomas Crown Affair". The film had a limited theatre release in June 2008, with Cornwell attending each screening and taking part in a Q&A session at the end of the film. In February and March 2009, with the rhythm section of Campbell and Bell, Cornwell took ''Hooverdam'' on a tour of the UK and France, playing the whole album in order, followed by a mix of older solo and Stranglers material. On 26 June 2009, they played at the Glastonbury Festival.

In late 2009, Cornwell and his band toured the US and the UK playing ''Hooverdam'' and ''Rattus Norvegicus'' albums back to back.

In an interview with www.ExclusiveMagazine.com conducted on 19 February 2010, Cornwell said that his upcoming new album will be titled 'Totem & Taboo', but no release date is yet agreed.

In October and November 2010, Cornwell toured the US with Steve Fishman on bass and vocals and Clem Burke from Blondie on drums. At the Mercury Lounge they were also joined onstage with Tim Wheeler.

Films, theatre and television

Cornwell has an interest in acting, and has appeared in a number of productions including the 1987 Peter Richardson film ''Eat the Rich'', the award winning BBC Screen Two series (renamed from ''Play for Today'') and in the 1995 BBC production, ''Rumble''. He has also appeared in a number of videos and short films, including Bertrand Fèvre's ''L'étoile de sang'' and Ben Thomas' ''Somewhere''.

Cricket

A cricket fan, Cornwell appeared on the 'Jamie Theakston Cricket Show' on BBC Radio 5 Live in 2001. He played a live acoustic version of "(Get A) Grip (On Yourself)" with the then England batsman and guitarist Mark Butcher. Cornwell subsequently became a player with Bunbury Cricket Club, and has been a guest on 'A View From The Boundary' on BBC Radio Four's ''Test Match Special'' and BBC Radio 5 Live's ''Yes It's The Ashes''.

Books

Cornwell has written three books:

''Inside Information'' (1980) tells of the time he spent in Pentonville prison for drug possession

''The Stranglers – Song by Song'' (2001) guides the reader through all of The Stranglers catalogue

''A Multitude of Sins'' (2004) is his autobiography.

His next book, 'Window to the World', will be a work of fiction.

Discography

Solo albums

''Wolf'' (1988)

''Wired'' (1993)

''Guilty'' (1997)

''Hi Fi'' (2000)

''Footprints in the Desert'' (2002)

''Beyond Elysian Fields'' (2004)

''Hooverdam'' (2008)

Other albums

''Nosferatu'' (1979) (with Robert Williams)

''CCW'' (1992) (with Roger Cook and Andy West)

''Black Hair, Black Eyes, Black Suit'' (US release of Guilty) (1999)

''First Bus To Babylon'' (1999) (US release of Wired)

''Sons of Shiva'' (2002) (with Sex W Johnston)

''Mayday'' (2002) (live album)

''In the Dock'' (2003) (live acoustic album)

''People; Places; Pieces'' (2006) (live album)

''Dirty Dozen'' (2006) (live album – selected highlights from ''People; Places; Pieces'')

''Acoustic Fields'' (2008) (live acoustic recording of ''Beyond Elysian Fields'')

''New Songs For King Kong'' (2010) (live album)

References

External links

Hugh Cornwell solo photo resource

Hugh Cornwell interviews at www.strangled.co.uk

Full discography

Category:1949 births Category:Living people Category:Alumni of the University of Bristol Category:English autobiographers Category:English male singers Category:English guitarists Category:English songwriters Category:English writers Category:People from Highgate Category:The Stranglers members

de:Hugh Cornwell es:Hugh Cornwell fr:Hugh Cornwell he:יו קורנוול ja:ヒュー・コーンウェル pl:Hugh Cornwell ru:Корнуэлл, Хью

name	The King Blues
background	group_or_band
origin	London, England
genre	Punk rock, ska punk, folk punk, reggae, alternative rock
years active	2004–present
label	Transmission RecordingsField RecordingsIsland Records
associated acts	Suicide BidRamraid The OffyThe Skints
website
current members	Jonny 'Itch' FoxJamie JazzJack UsherDean AshtonKat MarshJosie Dobson
past members	Robin Guy Chris GoodmanMike 'Fruitbag' PayneJohnny Rich Al Gunby Jim ParmleyGeorge LindsayPerkieAde Preston
notable instruments	}}

The King Blues are a punk band from London, England, credited for fusing ska and folk together with influences from punk rock and hardcore punk. Tariq Ali described the band's sounds as 'rough, radical music that should unsettle the rulers of this country. A new generation of musicians are challenging war-monger politicians and their courtiers'. Influences include Public Enemy, The Clash, The Specials, Black Flag and Minor Threat. Their third full length album, ''Punk and Poetry'', was released on the 17th of April 2011. Lead singer Jonny 'Itch' Fox describes the music as 'a mixture of reggae, hip hop, folk, doo wop, punk rock.'

History

The King Blues started off as a two man ska outfit, consisting of Jonny 'Itch' Fox playing ukulele and asvocalist and Jamie Jazz playing acoustic guitar and contributing vocals. Current member Jamie Jazz used to work in a music/guitar shop called Rock Around the Clock in north London's Crouch End/Muswell Hill district; however Jazz realised that in order to put The King Blues at the top, he had to leave his job. Whilst this was going on they then expanded to include a second acoustic guitar and a bassist, before again expanding to include two full-time percussion members. Their sound was initially described as "soulful ska with raw folk and a punk rock attitude". or "conscious rude boy ska"

In 2004 they self released a demo EP titled "All Fall Down" featuring 5 tracks recorded by Itch on guitar and vocals. The cover and CD body art was a stencil of a fuse bomb and the band's logo, each one was hand sprayed.

Under The Fog (2006/07)

In June 2006 their debut album, ''Under the Fog'', was released on Household Name Records which coincided with increased touring and gigs. In November of the same year, "Mr Music Man" was released as a CD single, also on Household Name. The single was enhanced with a video chronicling the band's attempt to play more gigs in a 24-hour period than Status Quo's record-breaking four gigs in one day. The King Blues managed seven. Their single "Mr Music Man" was voted Best Punk Song of 2006 by ''BBC Radio 1''.

In 2007 the band was signed to Field Recordings, a label co-owned by Rollo Armstrong and backed by Island Records. ''Under the Fog'' was partly rerecorded and re-issued in March 2008, and was preceded by two singles, "Come Fi Di Youth" and a new version of "Mr. Music Man".

''Save The World, Get The Girl'' (2008)

In May 2008 the band released a single from their forthcoming second album ''Save the World. Get the Girl'' called "Let's Hang the Landlord" to all those signed up to their email list. The song took them in a slightly different direction, opening with a violin. The lyric is both autobiographical and true, detailing Itch's life as a teenage punk. The track was also released on a split 7" single, alongside "Mayday", the debut UK single by Flobots.

Their second album ''Save the World, Get the Girl'' was released on October 20, 2008 in the UK. The album was produced by Peter Miles, who produced ''Under the Fog'', and Clive Langer (producer of Elvis Costello, Madness, Dexy's Midnight Runners, Morrissey, Teardrop Explodes, Bush and The Holloways). The album received positive reviews.

"My Boulder" was released as a single on October 13, 2008 in the UK. Zane Lowe has played this track several times on ''BBC Radio 1'' and recommended it on air to Noel Gallagher. "My Boulder" includes an excerpt from a reading of the poem ''The Pied Piper of Hamlyn'' by Robert Browning.

Another track from ''Save the World, Get the Girl'' to receive Radio 1 airplay is What If Punk Never Happened, which has been played by Rob da Bank, Mike Davies, and Zane Lowe. Songs from the album, including "What if Punk Never Happened?" and "Let's Hang The Landlord" also received air play from the Xfm punk show (''X Punk'') hosted by Pete Donaldson and Phil Clifton. The band have also received considerable airplay in Australia courtesy of Triple R's punk program ''Bullying the Jukebox''.

The band's single "I Got Love" from their 2008 album ''Save the World, Get the Girl'' was released on 4 May 2009. It was played at many gigs and tours before being announced as a single. Its first air time was on ''BBC Radio 1''.

They also did a cover of Dizzee Rascal's "Bonkers" in Radio 1's ''Live Lounge'' in June 2009.

Post 'Save the World, Get the Girl' and Punk & Poetry (2011)

Over late 2009 and early 2010 The King Blues continued to tour their second album Save the World, Get the Girl, adding new songs to their setlist over time, such as "Headbutt", "Sore Throat" and "Five Bottles of Shampoo".

In mid 2010, The King Blues were dropped from Field Recordings. This coincided with the departure of band members Fruitbag, Johnny Rich, Al Gunby and Jim Parmley. A controversial message explaining the departures was posted on the Punktastic forum by Fruitbag. The message proceeded to raise questions marks over the bands credibility amongst many fans. However, the band quickly found a new record label, Transmission Recordings, and new members. Only a few weeks later, the new King Blues lineup went on tour supporting Enter Shikari.

On the 23rd of March, Zane Lowe aired a new single, "Headbutt", as his "hottest record in the world" on his Radio 1 show. No release date was given, but Itch stated that the band had completely finished recording 5 or 6 new songs. On their recent tour of the United Kingdom, it was announced that their new single "Headbutt" would be released on 16 May 2010 and that Rou Reynolds of Enter Shikari had remixed the track which was available to download for free

The King Blues departed on their "London Brawling tour" (10 April until the 5th of May) along with four different support bands: Mouthwash (all gigs), Moral Dilemma, The Meow Meows and Dirty Revolution. Most nights of the tour the band have invited someone on stage to speak, for example Sophie Lancaster's mum speaking for the foundation. The King Blues have S.O.P.H.I.E. bands available on tour. The King Blues have also been playing "love music hate racism gigs" in between gigs. On August 8, 2010 they played at the Hevy Music Festival near Folkestone, UK. During this time, the band started playing many new songs off the new album 'Punk & Poetry'. A lot of this material, such as "Kissing Frogs" and "We Will Never Grow Old" is no longer on the album, due to the band finding new inspiration from the UK's Anti Cuts protests and riots, and the 2010-2011 Middle East and North Africa Protests which has led to them writing new material such as "I Want You", "We Are Fucking Angry" and "Set The World On Fire"

On the 29th of August, The King Blues released their new single 'Holiday' along with 'I Got Hate' and an Acoustic version of the previous single 'Headbutt' which acted as B-sides to the single. On the same day, the King Blues played the main stage at Reading Festival.

On the 21st of January The King Blues posted a 40 second preview of a new song, 'We Are Fucking Angry'. It received radio play Mike Davies Radio 1 Punk Show, a few days later a free download link to the song was posted on the internet by the band.

The first single off Punk & Poetry debuted on Mike Davies' Punk Show on the 7th of February, receiving more plays on the same show and Zane Lowe's show over the next few weeks. On the 26th of February, the official music video for the song was posted online. It will be released on the 10th of April on digital download with a Dr Meaker remix version of song acting as the b-side.

On the 1st of March, Itch co-hosted Mike Davies Radio 1 Punk Show, previewing new songs The Future's Not What It Used To Be and Five Bottles of Shampoo, as well as new singles We Are Fucking Angry and Set the World on Fire. On the 5th of March, the track-listing for Punk & Poetry was announced, due out for the 18th April.

At the 2011 Leeds Festival, during their set on the Lock Up Stage. Itch said that they were already working on a follow up to Punk & Poetry before playing a new song, 'Power to the People'.

Politics

The King Blues have "a commitment to politics and resistance". Itch writes a column for ''Last Hours'' magazine which generally focuses on resistance politics and protest. Several songs on ''Under the Fog'' are overtly political, including "Chimp in a 3 Piece Suit" and "Duck and Cover". The band's website states that ''Save the World. Get the Girl'' will feature "a much more personalized take on social ills" than ''Under the Fog''. Nonetheless, overtly political lyrics do feature in two live favourites that will appear on the new album. The title track includes the lyric "Going to war to prevent war was the most stupid thing I ever heard", while ''The Streets Are Ours'' includes references to Indymedia and Tiananmen Square. "Smash EDO Dub", the B side to the re-release of "Mr. Music Man", features an interview with a campaigner from the Smash Edo movement. The links on The King Blues' official website are almost exclusively political. On his formspring, he states that he is probably an anarchist. Judging from other quotes and lyrics, it is likely that the other members of the band are also anarchists.

Band members

Present:

Jonny 'Itch' Fox: Vocals, Ukulele, Melodica

Jamie Jazz: Guitar, Vocals

Dean Ashton: Guitar, Backing Vocals

Kat Marsh - Bass, Backing Vocals

Josie Dobson - Keys, Backing Vocals

Jack Usher: Drums

Past:

Fruitbag: Guitar, Backing Vocals

Johnny Rich: Bass

Al Gunby: Drums

Jim Parsley: Percussion

Chris Goodman: Bass

George Lindsay: Drums

Perkie: Keys, Vocals

Ade Preston: Guitar, Backing Vocals

Charlie Wilson: Guitar

Discography

Albums

!Year	!Album	!Label
2006	''Under the Fog''	Household Name
	''Under the Fog'' (Reissue)
''Save the World. Get the Girl''
2011	''Punk and Poetry''	Transmission Recordings

EPs

!Year	!Title
2004	''All Fall Down EP''
2007	''Taking Over EP''
	''The Engine Room Acoustic Session''
''My Boulder EP''
2009	''I Got Love EP''

Singles

Year	Single	! Peak chart position	Album
		!style="width:5em;font-size:85%"
2006	"Mr. Music Man"	—
2007	"Come Fi Di Youth"	—
	"Mr. Music Man" (re-issue)	—
"Let's Hang the Landlord"	—
"My Boulder"	156
	"Save the World, Get the Girl"	68
"I Got Love"	96
		72	''Punk and Poetry''
"Holiday"	—
2011	"Set The World On Fire"	—	''Punk and Poetry''

References

External links

Official website

Review of The King Blues' performance at Island Records' 50th Birthday Party at the Camden Crawl 25/04/09 on the Daily Music Guide

press blog

Facebook

Bebo

Q&A with Jonny "Itch" Fox on politics, girls and making it big in America

interview on music.virgin.com

ChangeTheRecord.net interview - 01/08/09

Category:Underground punk scene in the United Kingdom Category:Ukulele players Category:Anti-fascists

da:The King Blues de:The King Blues fr:The King Blues ru:The King Blues

Name	Shaka kaSenzangakhona
Birth date	c. 1787
Birth place	KwaZulu-Natal, near Melmoth
Death date	22 September 1828 (aged 41)
Death cause	assassination
Resting place	Stanger, South Africa
Religion	Zulu
Children	unknown
Parents	Senzangakona (father)Nandi (mother)
Footnotes	}}

Shaka kaSenzangakhona (c. 1787 – c. 22 September 1828), also known as Shaka Zulu (), was the most influential leader of the Zulu Kingdom.

He is widely credited with uniting many of the Northern Nguni people, specifically the Mtetwa Paramountcy and the Ndwandwe into the Zulu Kingdom, the beginnings of a nation that held sway over the large portion of southern Africa between the Phongolo and Mzimkhulu rivers, and his statesmanship and vigour marked him as one of the greatest Zulu chieftains. He has been called a military genius for his reforms and innovations, and condemned for the brutality of his reign. Other historians note debate about Shaka's role as a uniter versus a usurper of traditional Zulu ruling prerogatives, and the notion of the Zulu state as a unique construction, divorced from the localised culture and the previous systems built by his predecessor Dingiswayo. Research continues into the character and methods of the Zulu warrior king, whose reign still greatly influences South African culture.

Early life

Shaka was the first son of the chieftain Senzangakhona and Nandi, a daughter of Bhebhe, the past chief of the Elangeni tribe, born near present-day Melmoth, KwaZulu-Natal Province. He was conceived out of wedlock somewhere between 1781 and 1787.

Shaka spent his childhood in his mother's settlements. He is recorded as having been initiated there and inducted into an ''ibutho lempi'' (fighting unit). In his early days, Shaka served as a warrior under the sway of local chieftain Dingiswayo and the Mthethwa, to whom the Zulu were then paying tribute.

Dingiswayo called up the emDlatsheni ''iNtanga'' (age-group), of which Shaka was part, and incorporated it in the Izichwe regiment. Shaka served as a Mthethwa warrior for perhaps as long as ten years, and distinguished himself with his courage, though he did not, as legend has it, rise to great position. Dingiswayo, having himself been exiled after a failed attempt to oust his father, had, along with a number of other groups in the region (including Mabhudu, Dlamini, Mkhize, Qwabe, and Ndwandwe, many probably responding to slaving pressures from southern Mozambique) helped develop new ideas of military and social organisation, in particular the ''ibutho'', sometimes translated as 'regiment' or 'troop'; it was rather an age-based labour gang which included some better-refined military activities, but by no means exclusively. Most battles before this time were to settle disputes, and while the appearance of ''ibutho lempi'' (fighting unit) dramatically changed warfare at times, it largely remained an instrument for seasonal raiding and political persuasion rather than outright slaughter. Of particular importance here is the relationship which Shaka and Dingiswayo had.

Shaka granted permission to Europeans to enter Zulu territory on rare occasions. Henry Francis Fynn provided medical treatment to the king after an assassination attempt from a rival tribe member hidden in a crowd (see account of Nathaniel Isaacs). To show his gratitude, Shaka permitted European settlers to enter and operate in the Zulu kingdom. This would open the door for future British incursions into the Zulu kingdom that were not so peaceful. Shaka observed several demonstrations of European technology and knowledge, but held that the Zulu way was superior to that of the foreigners. He was of medium height and his skin tone was dark brown. He was uncircumcised, which bucked a trend in Zulu culture near that time.

Shaka's enemies described him as ugly in some respects. He had a big nose, according to Baleka of the Qwabe, as told by her father.

When Dingiswayo was murdered by Zwide, a powerful chief of the Ndwandwe (Nxumalo) clan, Shaka sought to avenge his death. At some point Zwide barely escaped Shaka, though the exact details are not known. In that encounter Zwide's mother Ntombazi, a Sangoma (Zulu seer or shaman), was killed by Shaka. Shaka chose a particularly gruesome revenge on her, locking her in a house and placing jackals or hyenas inside: they devoured her and, in the morning, Shaka burned the house to the ground. Despite carrying out this revenge, Shaka continued his pursuit of Zwide. It was not until around 1825 that the two great military men would meet, near Phongola, in what would be their final meeting. Phongola is near the present day border of KwaZulu-Natal, a province in South Africa. Shaka was victorious in battle, although his forces sustained heavy casualties, which included his head military commander, Umgobhozi Ovela Entabeni.

In the initial years, Shaka had neither the influence nor reputation to compel any but the smallest of groups to join him, and he operated under Dingiswayo's aegis until the latter's death at the hands of Zwide's Ndwandwe. At this point, Shaka moved southwards across the Thukela River, establishing his capital Bulawayo in Qwabe territory; he never did move back into the traditional Zulu heartland. In Qwabe, Shaka may have intervened in an existing succession dispute to help his own choice, Nqetho, into power; Nqetho then ruled as a proxy chieftain for Shaka.

Expansion of power and conflict with Zwide

thumb|align=right|Sketch of a Zulu warrior As Shaka became more respected by his people, he was able to spread his ideas with greater ease. Because of his background as a soldier, Shaka taught the Zulus that the most effective way of becoming powerful quickly was by conquering and controlling other tribes. His teachings greatly influenced the social outlook of the Zulu people. The Zulu tribe soon developed a "warrior" mindset, which Shaka turned to his advantage.

Shaka's hegemony was primarily based on military might, smashing rivals and incorporating scattered remnants into his own army. He supplemented this with a mixture of diplomacy and patronage, incorporating friendly chieftains, including Zihlandlo of the Mkhize, Jobe of the Sithole, and Mathubane of the Thuli. These peoples were never defeated in battle by the Zulu; they did not have to be. Shaka won them over by subtler tactics, such as patronage and reward. As for the ruling Qwabe, they began re-inventing their genealogies to give the impression that Qwabe and Zulu were closely related in the past. In this way a greater sense of cohesion was created, though it never became complete, as subsequent civil wars attest. Sigujana was killed, the coup was relatively bloodless and accepted by the Zulu. Shaka still recognised Dingiswayo and his larger Mthethwa clan as overlord after he returned to the Zulu but, some years later, Dingiswayo was ambushed by Zwide's amaNdwandwe and killed. There is no evidence to suggest that Shaka betrayed Dingiswayo. Indeed, the core Zulu had to retreat before several Ndwandwe incursions; the Ndwandwe was clearly the most aggressive grouping in the sub-region.

Shaka was able to form an alliance with the leaderless Mthethwa clan and was able to establish himself amongst the Qwabe, after Phakathwayo was overthrown with relative ease. With Qwabe, Hlubi and Mkhize support, Shaka was finally able to summon a force capable of resisting the Ndwandwe (of the Nxumalo clan). Historian Donald Morris states that Shaka's first major battle against Zwide, of the Ndwandwe, was the Battle of Gqokli Hill, on the Mfolozi river. Shaka's troops maintained a strong position on the crest of the hill. A frontal assault by their opponents failed to dislodge them and Shaka sealed the victory by sending elephants in a sweep around the hill to attack the enemy's rear. Losses were high overall but the efficacy of the new Shakan innovations was proved. It is probable that, over time, the Zulu were able to hone and improve their encirclement tactics.

Another decisive fight eventually took place on the Mhlatuze river, at the confluence with the Mvuzane stream. In a two-day running battle, the Zulu inflicted a resounding defeat on their opponents. Shaka then led a fresh reserve some seventy miles to the royal kraal of Zwide, ruler of the Ndwandwe, and destroyed it. Zwide himself escaped with a handful of followers before falling foul of a chieftainess named Mjanji, ruler of the baPedi clan (he died in mysterious circumstances soon afterward). Shaka's general Soshangane (of the Shangaan) moved north towards what is now Mozambique to inflict further damage on less resistant foes and take advantage of slaving opportunities, obliging Portuguese traders to give tribute. Shaka later had to contend again with Zwide's son Sikhunyane in 1826.

Death and succession

Dingane and Mhlangana, Shaka's half-brothers, appear to have made at least two attempts to assassinate Shaka before they succeeded, with perhaps support from Mpondo elements, and some disaffected iziYendane people. While the British colonialists considered his regime to be a future threat, allegations that white traders wished his death are problematic given that Shaka had granted concessions to whites prior to his death, including the right to settle at Port Natal (now Durban). Shaka had made enough enemies among his own people to hasten his demise. It came relatively quickly after the devastation caused by Shaka's erratic behavior after the death of his mother Nandi. According to Donald Morris in this mourning period Shaka ordered that no crops should be planted during the following year, no milk (the basis of the Zulu diet at the time) was to be used, and any woman who became pregnant was to be killed along with her husband. At least 7,000 people who were deemed to be insufficiently grief-stricken were executed, though it wasn't restricted to humans, cows were slaughtered so that their calves would know what losing a mother felt like.

The Zulu monarch was killed by three assassins sometime in 1828, September is the most often cited date, when almost all available Zulu manpower had been sent on yet another mass sweep to the north. This left the royal kraal critically short of security. It was all the conspirators needed—they being Shaka's half-brothers, Dingane and Mhlangana, and an iNduna called Mbopa. A diversion was created by Mbopa, and Dingane and Mhlangana struck the fatal blows. Shaka's corpse was dumped into an empty grain pit by his assassins and filled with stones and mud. The exact site is unknown. A monument was built at one alleged site. Historian Donald Morris holds that it is somewhere on Couper Street in the village of Stanger, South Africa.

Shaka's half-brother Dingane assumed power and embarked on an extensive purge of pro-Shaka elements and chieftains, running over several years, in order to secure his position. A virtual civil war broke out. Dingane ruled for some twelve years, during which time he fought, disastrously, against the Voortrekkers, and against another half-brother Mpande, who with Boer and British support, took over the Zulu leadership in 1840, and ruled for some 30 years. Later in the 19th century the Zulus would be one of the few African peoples who managed to defeat the British Army; at the Battle of Isandlwana.

Shaka's social and military revolution

Some older histories have doubted the military and social innovations customarily attributed to Shaka, denying them outright, or attributing them variously to European influences. More modern researchers argue that such explanations fall short, and that the general Zulu culture which included other tribes and clans, contained a number of practices that Shaka could have drawn on to fulfill his objectives—whether in raiding, conquest or hegemony. Shaka drilled his troops frequently, forced marches sometimes covering more than a day in a fast trot over hot, rocky terrain. He also drilled the troops to carry out encirclement tactics.

Historian, John Laband, dismisses these stories as myth. "What are we to make, then, of [European trader Henry Francis] Fynn's statement that once the Zulu army reached hard and stony ground in 1826, Shaka ordered sandals of ox-hide to be made for himself?"

Well-organised logistic support by youth formations

Young boys aged six and over joined Shaka's force as apprentice warriors (''udibi'') and served as carriers of rations, supplies like cooking pots and sleeping mats, and extra weapons until they joined the main ranks. It is sometimes held that such support was used more for very light forces designed to extract tribute in cattle, women or young men from neighbouring groups. Nevertheless, the concept of "light" forces is questionable. The fast-moving Zulu raiding party or ''ibutho lempi'' on a mission invariably traveled light, driving cattle as provisions on the hoof, and were not weighed down with heavy weapons and supply packs. The herdboy logistic structure was deployed in support these relatively short-term operations, and was easily adaptable to large or small expeditions.

The age-grade regimental system

Age-grade groupings of various sorts were common in the Bantu culture of the day, and indeed are still important in much of Africa. Age grades were responsible for a variety of activities, from guarding the camp, to cattle herding, to certain rituals and ceremonies. Shaka organised various grades into regiments, and quartered them in special military kraals, with each regiment having its own distinctive names and insignia. The regimental system clearly built on existing tribal cultural elements that could be adapted and shaped to fit an expansionist agenda. There was no need to look for European inspiration hundreds of miles away.

The "buffalo horns" formation

Most historians credit Shaka with initial development of the famous "buffalo horns" formation. #The "horns", while the enemy Impi was pinned by the "chest", would flank the Impi from both sides and encircle it; in conjunction with the "chest" they would then destroy the trapped force. #The "loins", a large reserve, was placed, seated, behind the "chest" with their backs to the battle. The "loins" would be committed wherever the enemy Impi threaten to break out of the encirclement.

Coordination was supplied by regimental ''izinduna'' (chiefs or leaders) who used hand signals and messengers. The scheme was elegant in its simplicity, and well understood by the warriors assigned to each echelon.

Organization and leadership of the Zulu forces

The host were generally partitioned into three levels: regiments, corps of several regiments, and "armies" or bigger formations, although the Zulu did not use these terms in the modern sense. Any grouping of men on a mission could collectively be called an impi, whether a raiding party of 100 or horde of 10,000. Numbers were not uniform, but dependent on a variety of factors including assignments by the king or the manpower mustered by various clan chiefs or localities. A regiment might be 400 or 4000 men. These were grouped into corps that took their name from the military kraals where they were mustered, or sometimes the dominant regiment of that locality.

Shakan methods versus European technology

The expanding Zulu power inevitably clashed with European hegemony in the decades after Shaka's death. In fact, European travellers to Shaka's kingdom demonstrated advanced technology such as firearms and writing, but the Zulu monarch was less than convinced. There was no need to record messages, he held, since his messengers stood under penalty of death should they bear inaccurate tidings. As for firearms, Shaka acknowledged their utility as missile weapons after seeing muzzle-loaders demonstrated, but argued that in the time a gunman took to reload, he would be swamped by charging spear-wielding warriors.

Shaka as the creator of a revolutionary warfare style

A number of historians argue that Shaka 'changed the nature of warfare in Southern Africa from 'a ritualised exchange of taunts with minimal loss of life into a true method of subjugation by wholesale slaughter'.

Much controversy still surrounds the character, methods and activities of the Zulu king. From a military standpoint, historian John Keegan notes exaggerations and myths that surround Shaka, but nevertheless maintains: :''Fanciful commentators called him Shaka, the Black Napoleon, and allowing for different societies and customs, the comparison is apt. Shaka is without doubt the greatest commander to come out of Africa.''

Scholarship on Shaka

Sources on Shaka's life

Scholarship in recent years has revised views of the sources on Shaka's reign. The earliest are two eyewitness accounts written by white adventurer-traders who met Shaka during the last four years of his reign. Nathaniel Isaacs published his ''Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa'' in 1836, creating a picture of Shaka as a degenerate and pathological monster which survives in modified forms to this day. Isaacs was aided in this by Henry Francis Fynn, whose diary (actually a rewritten collage of various papers) was edited by James Stuart only in 1950.

Their accounts may be balanced by the rich resource of oral histories collected around 1900 by the same James Stuart, now published in 6 volumes as ''The James Stuart Archive''. Stuart's early 20th century work was continued by D. McK. Malcolm in 1950. These and other sources such as A. T. Bryant gives us a more Zulu-centred picture. Most popular accounts are based on E. A. Ritter's novel ''Shaka Zulu'' (1955), a potboiling romance which was re-edited into something more closely resembling a history. The work of John Wright (history professor at University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg), Julian Cobbing and Dan Wylie (Rhodes University, Grahamstown) have been among a number of writers that have modified these stories.

Various modern historians writing on Shaka and the Zulu point to the uncertain nature of Fynn and Isaac's accounts of Shaka's reign. A standard general reference work in the field is Donald Morris's "The Washing of The Spears" that notes the sources, as a whole, for this historical era are not the best. Morris nevertheless references a large number of sources, including Stuart, and A. T. Bryant's extensive but uneven "Olden Times in Zululand and Natal" which is based on four decades of exhaustive interviews of tribal sources. After sifting through these sources and noting their strengths and weaknesses, Morris generally credits Shaka with a large number of military and social innovations, and this is the general consensus in the field.

A 1998 study by historian Carolyn Hamilton summarizes much of the scholarship on Shaka towards the dawn of the 21st century in areas ranging from ideology, politics and culture, to the use of his name and image in a popular South African theme park, ''Shakaland.'' It argues that in many ways, the image of Shaka has been "invented" in the modern era according to whatever agenda persons hold. This "imagining of Shaka" it is held, should be balanced by a sober view of the historical record, and allow greater scope for the contributions of indigenous African discourse.

Military historians of the Zulu War must also be considered for their description of Zulu fighting methods and tactics, including authors like Ian Knight and Robert Edgerton. General histories of Southern Africa are also valuable including Noel Mostert's "Frontiers" and a detailed account of the results from the Zulu expansion, J. D. Omer-Cooper's "The Zulu Aftermath", which advances the traditional Mfecane theory.

Shaka and the Mfecane

History and legacy

The increased military efficiency led to more and more clans being incorporated into Shaka's Zulu empire, while other tribes moved away to be out of range of Shaka's ''impis''. The ripple effect caused by these mass migrations would become known (though only in the twentieth century) as the ''Mfecane'' (annihilation). Some groups which moved off (like the Hlubi and Ngwane to the north of the Zulus) could have been impelled by the Ndwandwe, not the Zulu. Some moved south (like the Chunu and the Thembe), but never suffered much in the way of attack; it was precautionary, and they left many people behind in their traditional homelands.

At the time of his death, Shaka ruled over 250,000 people and could muster more than 50,000 warriors. His 10-year-long kingship resulted in a massive number of deaths, mostly due to the disruptions the Zulu caused in neighbouring tribes, although the exact death toll is a matter of scholarly dispute. Further unquantifiable deaths occurred during mass tribal migrations to escape his armies.

Among the many fascinating cases of the Mfecane is that of Mzilikazi of the Khumalo who was a 'general' of Shaka's, who fled Shaka's employ, and in turn conquered an empire in Zimbabwe, after clashing with European groups like the Boers. The settling of Mzilikazi's people, the AmaNdebele or Matabele, in the south of Zimbabwe with the concomitant driving of the AmaShona into the north caused a tribal conflict which still resonates today. Other notable figures to arise from the Mfecane include Shoshangane, who expanded from the Zulu area into what is now Mozambique. Shaka was clearly a tough, able leader, the most able of his time who, during the last four years of his reign, indulged in several long-distance raids.

Disruptions of the Mfecane

The theory of the Mfecane holds that the aggressive expansion of Shaka's armies caused a brutal chain reaction across the southern areas of the continent, as dispossessed tribe after tribe turned on their neighbours in a deadly cycle of fight and conquest. This theory must be treated with caution, some scholars hold, as it generally neglects several other factors such as the impact of white encroachment, slave trading and expansion in that area of Southern Africa around the same time. The development of the view that Shaka was the monster responsible for the devastation is based on the need of apartheid era historians to justify the apartheid regime's racist policies. Other scholars acknowledge distortion of the historical record by apartheid supporters and shady white traders seeking to cover their tracks, but dispute the revisionist approach, noting that stories of cannibalism, raiding, burning of villages, or mass slaughter were not developed out of thin air but based on the clearly documented accounts of hundreds of black victims, and refugees. Confirmation of such accounts can also be seen in modern archaeology of the village of Lepalong, an entire settlement built underground to shelter remmnants of the Kwena people from 1827-36 against the tide of disruption that engulfed the region during Shakan times.

Shaka in Zulu culture

The figure of Shaka still sparks interest among not only the contemporary Zulu but many worldwide who have encountered the tribe and its history. The current tendency appears to be to lionise him; popular film and other media have certainly contributed to his appeal. Against this must be balanced the devastation and destruction that he wrought. Certain aspects of traditional Zulu culture still revere the dead monarch, as the typical praise song below attests. It should be noted that the praise song is one of the most widely used poetic forms in Africa, applying not only to gods but to men, animals, plants and even towns.

Other Zulu sources are sometimes critical of Shaka, and numerous negative images abound in Zulu oral history. When Shaka's mother Nandi died for example, the monarch ordered a massive outpouring of grief including mass executions, forbidding the planting of crops or the use of milk, and the killing of all pregnant women and their husbands. Oral sources record that in this period of devastation, a singular Zulu, a man named ''Gala'', eventually stood up to Shaka and objected to these measures, pointing out that Nandi was not the first person to die in Zululand. Taken aback by such candid talk, the Zulu king is supposed to have called off the destructive edicts, rewarding the blunt teller-of-truths with a gift of cattle.

The figure of Shaka thus remains an ambiguous one in African oral tradition, defying simplistic depictions of the Zulu king as a heroic, protean nation builder on one hand, or a depraved monster on the other. This ambiguity continues to lend the image of Shaka its continued power and influence, almost two centuries after his death.

uShaka Marine World, an aquatic theme park in Durban opened in 2004.

Popular culture

Shaka Zulu is a playable character in ''Deadliest Warrior: Legends.

Shaka Zulu was pitted against William Wallace in Spike's TV show, Deadliest Warrior. The winner of the match was William Wallace.

See also

List of Zulu kings

African military systems to 1800

African military systems after 1900

African military systems (1800–1900)

Brother, assassin, Umthlangana

King Moshoeshoe I of Lesotho

Ndebele

''Shaka Zulu'', an SABC TV series about Shaka

List of South Africans – Voted 14th in the TV Show 100 Greatest South Africans

''Chaka'', a novel by Thomas Mofolo based loosely on Shaka Zulu's life

''Nada the Lily'', a novel by Henry Rider Haggard based in part on the events of Shaka's reign

''Emperor Shaka the Great''- a heroic epic poem based on Zulu Oral history collected by Mazisi Kunene

References

Further reading

Chanaiwa, David Shingirai (1980), "The Zulu Revolution: State Formation in a Pastoralist Society," In: African Studies Review 23(3) (Dec. 1980): 1–20.

Edgerton, Robert (1988) ''Like Lions They Fought''

Hamilton, Carolyn (1998) ''Terrific Majesty: the Powers of Shaka Zulu and the Limits of Historical Invention''

Knight, Ian (1995) ''Anatomy of the Zulu Army''

Laband, John (1997) "The Rise and Fall of the Zulu Nation"

Mostert, Noel (1992) ''Frontiers''

Omer-Cooper, J. D. (1965) ''The Zulu Aftermath''

Ritter, E. A. (1955) ''Shaka Zulu: The Rise of the Zulu Empire''

Wylie, Dan (2006) ''Myth of Iron: Shaka in History''

The South African Military History Society - The Zulu Military Organization and the Challenge of 1879

Shaka: Zulu chieftain

The History of Shaka

Statue proposal

"Shaka Zulu," Carpe Noctem

Rory Carroll in Johannesburg, Shaka Zulu's brutality was exaggerated, says new book, Monday May 22, 2006, The Guardian.

|- | colspan=3 align=center | King of the Zulu Nation |- | align="center" | Preceded by:Senzangakhona | align="center" | Reign1816–1828 | align="center" | Succeeded by:Dingane

Category:1787 births Category:1828 deaths Category:1828 crimes Category:19th-century African people Category:History of KwaZulu-Natal Category:Murdered monarchs Category:People from KwaZulu-Natal Category:Zulu kings

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